During the era when Charlemagne became Emperor of the West, the Khazar Empire, a Jewish state located between the Caucasus and the Volga, played a pivotal role in shaping medieval Europe. At its height, from the 7th to the 10th centuries, the Khazar Empire was strategically important both politically and militarily. The empire’s influence was so significant that the Byzantine court protocol assigned higher value to messages sent to the Khazar King than those to the Pope or the Western Emperor, reflecting the realpolitik of the time. This underscores the importance attributed to the Khazar rulers, who were considered as influential as Charlemagne and his successors.
Strategically positioned as a buffer state between the Black Sea and the Caspian, the Khazars protected Byzantium from northern barbarian tribes and prevented the Muslim expansion into Eastern Europe. Their military strength effectively blocked the Arab armies advancing north after the death of Muhammad, preventing them from establishing a foothold in Eastern Europe after they reached the Caucasus. This role was crucial in maintaining the balance of power in favor of Byzantium and, by extension, Christendom, alongside the Franks’ halting of Muslim advances in the west at the Battle of Tours. The Khazars’ successful defense against the Arab onslaught was as significant as the efforts in the west, suggesting that without their presence, the history of European civilization and Islam could have taken a dramatically different path.
In the 8th century, following a significant victory over the Arabs, the Khazar Empire rose in prominence, influencing geopolitical relationships, such as through the marriage of a Khazar princess to the future Byzantine Emperor Constantine V. Their son, Leo IV, came to be known as Leo the Khazar. The final battle in this long conflict, despite ending in a Khazar defeat in 737, did not significantly alter their power as internal conflicts weakened the Muslim Caliphate. In an unexpected turn, around 740 AD, the Khazar ruling class converted to Judaism, a decision that continues to puzzle historians due to its defiance of dominant religious and political influences from Christianity and Islam.
The Khazar Empire’s conversion to Judaism has sparked debates among historians, particularly regarding the origins of Eastern European Jewry. The theory that a significant portion of world Jewry might descend from the Khazars rather than Semitic tribes has broad implications, potentially reframing our understanding of Jewish ancestry and challenging established narratives. This hypothesis, although controversial, finds some support in scattered historical and anthropological evidence. As Khazar settlements appeared in places like Crimea, Ukraine, and Poland post-empire, it suggests a migration that might have significantly influenced the Jewish demographic in these regions.
Archaeological findings suggest that the Khazars were transitioning from a nomadic lifestyle to a more settled existence, with evidence of fortified urban centers and agricultural activities. Their civilization was marked by a series of fortifications protecting an expansive territory in Eastern Europe. At their zenith, the Khazars exerted control or influence over numerous tribes and regions, functioning as a significant geopolitical entity blocking Asiatic nomadic tribes and protecting regions to their west. Despite their eventual decline, the Khazars maintained supremacy over large swaths of land and peoples for several centuries.
The origins and identity of the Khazars remain complex due to limited and often biased historical sources. Various historical accounts offer differing descriptions of their appearance and ethnic roots. The Khazars, like many tribes of their time, were part of the broader Turkic migrations from Asia into Europe. Their language and cultural connections are linked to other Turkic tribes, such as the Bulgars and Chuvash people. While the true essence of the Khazar identity may be elusive, their influence on medieval European history and culture is evident, as reflected in the etymological connections seen in modern terms like Cossack and Ketzer, indicating their lasting impact on the region’s collective memory.
The Khazars, a historical people of Turkish descent, are often enveloped in a tapestry of myth and factual tidbits recounted by Persian and Arab chronicles. These accounts, which sometimes stretch from creation myths to current events, often traced the Khazars back to notable figures like Japheth, a son of Noah, and even to Abraham or Alexander the Great. Early factual references to the Khazars include a 6th-century Syriac chronicle by Zacharia Rhetor, which lists them among the peoples of the Caucasus region. The Byzantine chronicler Priscus describes encounters with a group identified as the Ak-Khazars, or White Khazars, portraying them as a formidable warrior faction under Hunnic sovereignty, indicating their presence in Eastern Europe as early as the mid-5th century.
Following the Hunnic Empire’s collapse post-Attila, a shift of power facilitated the rise of various nomadic groups, with the Khazars emerging as a dominant force, particularly recognized for their incursions into regions like Georgia and Armenia. Throughout the late 6th century, they began consolidating power among northern Caucasus tribes, absorbing or subduing various groups such as the Sabirs and Saragurs. The formidable Bulgars opposed them but eventually succumbed, leading to a split with some migrating to present-day Bulgaria and others remaining under Khazar control on the Volga. The Khazars initially served under the West Turkish Empire, adopting their rulers’ title of Khagan before eventually rising to establish their rule over a considerable northern domain covered by diplomatic legends, including alliances with Byzantine and Persian powers.
During the early 7th century, the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East was characterized by power struggles among Byzantium, Persia, and lesser-known entities like the West Turkish Empire. The Khazars, still nominally under Turkish rule, played a significant role in these events, exemplified by their alliance with Byzantine Emperor Heraclius against Persia. They provided a significant cavalry force that participated in military campaigns, exemplifying the importance the Byzantine court placed on their alliance, as evidenced by proposed matrimonial ties between royal families. Chronicles document elaborate encounters between the Khazar leaders and the Byzantine emperor, showcasing the Khazars’ military prowess and political importance in the region.
The Khazar Empire, emerging from this complex historical backdrop, became a diverse, multi-ethnic state where the ruling Khazar minorities governed a heterogeneous populace comprising various tribes and peoples. This ethnic diversity, along with their geopolitical significance, underscored their historical legacy as a crucial entity in regional power dynamics, bridging the ancient worlds of European steppes and the Middle East. Their role in these historical developments, from legendary origins to political alliances, echoes the multifaceted and interconnected narratives of medieval Eurasian history.
To understand the Khazar conversion to Judaism around AD 740, it is valuable to examine the cultural practices and everyday life of the Khazars before this pivotal shift. Although direct descriptions from that time are sparse, relying mostly on Byzantine and Arab chroniclers, an insightful glimpse comes from the account of Ibn Fadlan, an Arab envoy on a diplomatic mission from Baghdad. His travelogue, primarily focused on the Volga Bulgars, offers indirect insights into the culture of the Khazars through observations of their regional neighbors. His journey in 921, aimed at fostering diplomatic ties with various tribes and promoting Islam, highlights the cultural milieu in areas under Khazar influence, including practices reminiscent of the pre-conversion Khazar customs.
Ibn Fadlan provides a vivid picture of the harsh climate and challenging travel conditions through northern lands, revealing the tribes’ responses to their environment. His descriptions of the Ghuzz Turks, neighbors to the Khazars, depict a nomadic lifestyle with no central religious authority and customs that puzzled the envoy, particularly their democratic decision-making processes and liberal sexual mores. Despite Ibn Fadlan’s disdain for their perceived uncleanliness and lack of modesty, these accounts shed light on a society characterized by independence and resilience, resistant to external authority and control — qualities likely influential in the broader Khazar culture before their eventual shift to a more structured religious state.
Amid the cultural observations, Ibn Fadlan notes the practices of punishment and ritual sacrifice that permeated the tribes’ judicial and religious behavior. These include severe retributions for crimes like adultery and manslaughter, which, though shocking to modern sensibilities, were accepted as societal norms by these tribes. Such practices aligned with shamanistic beliefs, which held sway over various nomadic groups across the region and possibly influenced pre-conversion Khazar spirituality. Despite his restricted access to Khazar territories due to geopolitical tensions, Ibn Fadlan’s accounts from nearby regions provide speculative parallels that suggest the Khazars shared similar shamanistic customs before their conversion to Judaism.
The enigmatic transformation of the Khazars from a tribal society with shamanistic roots to an organized state under Judaism remains a significant historical puzzle. Although Ibn Fadlan’s journey did not directly document the Khazars themselves, his observations offer clues to understanding the cultural and religious dynamics that preceded their eventual embrace of Judaism. These insights, set against the backdrop of intricate intertribal relations and external diplomatic missions, illustrate the complex tapestry of influences that shaped the Khazar Empire at a pivotal time in its history.
The journey of the Caliph’s mission across vast and hostile lands to reach the Volga Bulgars underscored the complex geopolitical landscape of the early 10th century. Avoiding direct passage through Khazaria due to tensions and potential threats, the mission took a lengthy detour around the Caspian Sea. Throughout this arduous trek, they faced numerous challenges, including suspicion from the Ghuzz Turks, who were wary of the mission’s intentions given their contentious relationship with the Khazars. Despite tense negotiations and threats, the mission continued, highlighting the delicate balance of alliances and hostilities that defined interactions among these tribes and states.
Upon arrival at the Bulgar encampment, the King expressed urgent concerns over support from the Caliph to fortify against Khazar aggression. The Bulgars’ dependence on the Muslim Caliphate for protection against their Jewish Khazar overlords illustrates the intricate network of dependencies and rivalries in the region. The Bulgars, subjected to a significant tribute to the Khazars, lived under their substantial influence and constant pressure, evidenced by personal familial transgressions involving the Khazar King taking the Bulgar King’s daughters by force. This tension-filled relationship highlights the Khazars’ formidable socio-political and military power.
Ibn Fadlan’s accounts, primarily based on hearsay and colored by the biases of Bulgar subjugation and Islamic opposition to Khazar Judaism, provide a glimpse into the Khazar Empire. The description of the Khazar court reveals a highly structured and somewhat aloof political hierarchy with the Great Kagan at its apex, who seldom appeared publicly, delegating authority to his deputy, the Kagan Bek. This centralized power structure, coupled with elaborate burial rites emphasizing secrecy, points to a society deeply entrenched in rituals and authority. The Khazars’ administrative sophistication and wealth drew from trade and tribute, reflecting a nation far removed from its nomadic origins.
The advancement of Khazaria compared to its nomadic neighbors is evident in architectural and cultural sophistication. The capital boasted a mix of religious and cultural influences, with distinct areas for Muslims and indigenous customs coexisting under Khazar law. This blend of diversity and cultural richness rendered Khazaria a cosmopolitan hub, engaging in significant trade routes that stretched from Asia to Byzantium. They acted as vital intermediaries, facilitating the flow of goods like textiles, spices, furs, and slaves, underscoring their economic prosperity and strategic geopolitical positioning.
Khazar art, influenced heavily by Persian-Sassanide and Byzantine aesthetics, flourished as a testament to their role as cultural conduits between the great empires and the semi-barbaric tribes of Eastern Europe. Artifacts found in territories under Khazar influence bear witness to their extensive trade and cultural links. The Khazar Empire’s artistry, administration, and trade activities reveal a civilization that not only bridged East and West in commerce but also played a crucial role in transmitting cultural and artistic motifs, leaving a lasting legacy on the arts in the region, including in the territories of the Magyars and Bulgars under their influence.
The passage explores the complex societal and political structure of the Khazar Empire during a transformative period in its history. It begins with a depiction of a warrior, identifiable as either Magyar or Khazar, symbolizing the militaristic prowess and the elite cavalry forces that played a crucial role in sustaining Khazar dominance in the region. Arab historical sources such as Masudi and Ibn Hawkal highlight the singularity of the Khazar’s standing army, which consisted of thousands of professional soldiers and a Praetorian Guard. This permanent military force was not only pivotal in maintaining peace within the ethnically diverse empire but also served as a critical unit during wartime, suggesting that their military organization was key to their success and influence.
The capital cities of the Khazar Empire—Balanjar, Samandar, and finally, Itil—exemplify the geographical and strategic evolution of their administrative centers over time. Itil, described as a twin city divided by the Volga River, was notably characterized by its religious plurality and tolerance. The city’s governance included courts that upheld the laws of diverse religious communities, such as Muslims, Jews, and Christians, underlining a unique coexistence in stark contrast to the prevalent fanaticism and disorder of the contemporaneous Western Europe. The Khazar administration is noted for its broad-minded and just management, which attracted various groups, including Muslim merchants and craftsmen, to the region due to the security and prosperity it offered.
However, this narrative of tolerance is balanced by accounts of archaic and possibly brutal rituals that were retained from the Khazar’s tribal past. These include reports of ritual regicide, where the king (Kagan) was killed or required to predict his reign’s duration under duress. Although the accuracy of these accounts is questioned, they resonate with a broader anthropological phenomenon of ritual kingship, where the lifespan or reign of rulers could be limited by ceremonial customs. These practices highlight the complex interplay of reverence and sacrifice toward the Kagan, who, while venerated as a divine figure, wielded little real power compared to his secular counterpart, the Bek, illustrating a system of double kingship.
This double kingship, with the sacred Kagan and the secular Bek, indicates a clear distinction between religious and political authority. This system, somewhat similar to the imperial setup of Japan, underscores the Khazar’s distinctive political structure that divorced the divine from everyday governance. Hypotheses suggest that the acceptance of Judaism as the state religion and the establishment of the double kingship might be interconnected events, potentially stemming from a political maneuver or coup that reshaped leadership dynamics. The passage suggests that the integration of religious conversion and a bifurcated leadership model was pivotal in shaping the Khazar Empire’s legacy and governance.