The Khazar Empire reached its zenith in the second half of the eighth century, a period marked by the conversion of Bulan to Judaism and subsequent religious reforms under Obadiah. This success was not solely due to their adoption of Judaism but rather the culmination of their economic and military strength. A symbolic manifestation of their influence was Emperor Leo the Khazar of Byzantium, who was named after his mother, a Khazar princess. Her marriage to the Emperor followed a significant Khazar victory over the Muslims, indicating a strategic alliance between the Khazar and Byzantine empires.
The period was also rife with political intrigue, where dynastic marriages often became instigators of conflict. Early examples can be traced back to Attila’s time, which set a precedent for using marital alliances as both a means of power and a trigger for war. A notable incident involved a Khazar princess whose marriage to an Armenian governor ended tragically, igniting a Khazar invasion of Armenia. Such events were recurrent themes in Khazar history, affecting their relations with neighboring powers. However, by the end of the eighth century, Khazar-Arab military engagements ceased, transitioning into a period of relative peace in the early ninth century.
During this peaceful phase, the Khazars maintained amicable relations with both the Caliphate and Byzantium. Yet, new threats emerged in the form of the Vikings, prompting the Khazars to build a formidable fortress, Sarkel, on the Don River with Byzantine assistance. This construction was a response to the growing menace of Viking incursions, who were expanding aggressively across Europe and posing significant threats to the existing order. Sarkel represented a key strategic defense against potential Viking advances from the north.
By the ninth century, the Vikings, known in the East as the Rus, had become a formidable force, raiding and colonizing vast territories. These movements mirrored the earlier Arab expansions, although differing in motive and method. The Khazars played a crucial role in halting the Viking advance towards Byzantium and the Caliphate. This defense is illustrated in a later correspondence where the Khazar leader claims responsibility for guarding against Rus raids, underscoring the continued strategic importance of the Khazars in that volatile era. The Khazars’ defensive efforts not only provided a buffer for Byzantium but also showcased their central role in the geopolitical dynamics of the time.
The Vikings known as “Rhos” by the Byzantines and “Varangians” by the Arab chroniclers were primarily Norsemen from eastern Sweden. These seafaring Vikings followed a consistent strategy of seasonal raiding, establishing strategic island bases, and eventually integrating with the local populations. In Eastern Europe, they infiltrated territories through waterways like the Dnieper River, evolving from raiders to settlers over time. Their expansion was marked by both diplomatic exchanges and violent confrontations, particularly with the Slavic tribes and the Khazars. This mixture of violence and trade set the stage for the development of powerful settlements, including the significant growth of Novgorod.
The Varangians were essentially commercial marauders, combining trade and warfare practices. They established significant trade networks, where goods were exchanged amidst acts of piracy. The Arab chronicler Masudi describes their fleet as dual-purpose, serving both commercial and military functions, illustrating the close link between their roles as traders and warriors. The Rus, as these Vikings were often called, were fierce and aggressively expanded their territories, but eventually, their character began to transform. Integration through permanent settlement led to their gradual assimilation into the Slavic cultures they initially raided, ultimately leading them to adopt Christianity and form the early roots of the Russian state.
The Khazars, crucial intermediaries amid these developments, constructed the fortress of Sarkel to monitor and manage Rus movements and extract taxes. The interactions between the Khazars and the Rus were initially trade-oriented, with intermittent conflicts. This contact facilitated cultural exchanges, as evidenced by the adoption of the Khazar title “Kagan” by early Rus rulers. These points highlight the significant, perhaps overlooked, role the Khazars played in the cultural and political development of Rus society during this era. These interactions, however, have been downplayed throughout history by political influences seeking to assert a different cultural narrative.
The role of the Khazars has been controversial, particularly in how it’s portrayed historically. In Soviet times, narratives were manipulated to reduce the perceived influence of Khazars on Russian culture. Soviet historians, like Professor Artamonov, faced censorship and professional repercussions for highlighting Khazar contributions. Despite historical evidence of significant interactions and cultural exchanges, Soviet historiography rejected the notion of Khazarian influence on early Russian state formation and culture, labeling it contrary to Marxist interpretations of history.
The campaign to downplay or erase the historical significance of the Khazars extends to the physical destruction of key archaeological sites like Sarkel, submerged in the mid-20th century. This erasure reflects broader political motives to promote a narrative of indigenous development in Russian history, minimizing foreign influence. Yet, scholarly challenges from historians like Artamonov persisted, emphasizing the complexity and interconnectedness of cultural development in this region, despite political pressures to conform. Nevertheless, the intrinsic historical contributions of the Khazars to the development of Russian culture remain a significant, albeit contentious, subject of study.
During the late ninth century, the Rus gradually encroached upon the Khazar Empire by establishing control over its Slavonic subjects and vassals. According to the Primary Russian Chronicle, the tribute from these Slavonic peoples had been divided between the Khazars and the Varangians. However, by 862, the strategic town of Kiev transitioned from Khazar control to Rus control without significant conflict. The Rus presence under leaders such as Oleg saw Kiev grow in prominence, eclipsing Novgorod and laying the foundation for what would become the first Russian state. Although Kiev slipped from Khazar control, Khazar cultural influence persisted, as indicated by communities that retained ties to their Jewish heritage.
Parallel to the rise of the Rus was the evolution of steppe dynamics involving the Magyars, Khazar allies since early in their empire. The Magyars, a Finnic-related ethnic group, settled in the region between the Don and the Kuban rivers. They served as Khazar vassals, collecting tribute from Slavic and Finnic peoples. However, the increasing threat posed by the Rus necessitated strategic changes, prompting the Khazars to allow the Magyars to relocate west of the Don River. This move, intended to help neutralize the Rus expansion, mirrored the Khazars’ earlier strategic decisions, such as the construction of the fortress Sarkel.
For nearly fifty years, the Magyars maintained close ties with the Khazars, further evidenced when the Khazars facilitated the establishment of a Magyar monarchy. This alliance was symbolized by the marriage alliance between the Khazar Kagan and Magyar chieftain Lebedias, and the eventual emergence of Arpad as the first Magyar king. This dynastic intervention solidified Magyar organization and influenced their ethnic composition. The story of Arpad, installed following Khazar customs, became foundational to Hungarian history, marking the beginning of a dynasty that endured until 1301.
The interactions between the Khazars and Magyars illustrate the flexibility and influence of the Khazar Empire across regions and peoples during this period. By strategically supporting the Magyars, the Khazars managed to exert considerable influence over the balance of power in Eastern Europe, although this influence was gradually overshadowed by the ascent of the Rus. Despite eventual Soviet efforts to diminish the historical role of the Khazars, these actions underscore their instrumental role in shaping the early political landscape of Eastern Europe.
The integration of the Kabar rebels, who were originally part of a Khazar rebellion, significantly impacted the Magyar tribes in ways that shaped Hungarian national character. The Kabars, who joined the Magyars after fleeing the Khazar regime, brought not only their martial prowess but also linguistic influence, resulting in a bilingual society for the early Magyars. This influence reinforced the Magyars’ military capabilities and heightened their standing among the tribes. The Kabar tribes, noted for their efficiency in warfare, took leadership roles in the Magyar confederation, adding a new dynamic to the Magyar identity through both bloodline and cultural infusion.
The Magyar migration, prompted by the incursions of the Pechenegs, marked the end of their association with the Khazars. The Pechenegs forced the Magyars westward into the region of Etel-Köz, eventually culminating in their entry into the Carpathian Basin, where they established what would become modern Hungary. The Magyars’ migration was a complex process influenced by alliances and consecutive military pressures, illustrating the interconnected play of tribes across the Eurasian steppes. As their nomadic way of life intertwined with the Kabar influence, the Magyars emerged as formidable raiders, deploying advanced mounted tactics akin to those used by their Turkish counterparts.
The Kabars infused the Magyars with strategic military tactics, turning them into a dominant force in Europe during the ninth and tenth centuries. This period saw the Magyars conducting extensive raids throughout Europe, while the Kabar military prowess provided the aggressive edge needed for such conquests. Despite their earlier setbacks against the Pechenegs, the Magyars soon became a terror across the continent, demonstrating their ability to adapt and overcome through strategic and tactical evolution. This military resurgence was directly linked to the influence of the Kabars, who represented the fighting spirit and nomadic lifestyle essential for Magyar survival and expansion.
The establishment of the Hungarian state was intrinsically tied to these historical movements and interactions. The Magyar integration of the Kabars contributed significantly to this process, providing both a martial tradition and a means of cultural preservation amid changing European landscapes. The Magyar tribes, having adopted many Kabar attributes, managed to maintain their cultural identity despite influences from surrounding ethnic groups. The subsequent invitation by Duke Taksony to Khazars highlights the enduring connection between Hungary and its nomadic past, indicating a continued exchange of culture and people that further shaped the nation. As Central Europe stabilized with the Magyars’ settlement, the foundation was laid for the modern ethnic tapestry of the region.
The story of the Rus ascent to power resumes with their bloodless conquest of Kiev around AD 862, at a time when the Magyars were forced westward by the Pechenegs. This strategic shift left the Khazars vulnerable, enabling the Rus to solidify their control of Kiev and subsequently threaten Byzantium. The Rus demonstrated their growing power with a daring raid on Constantinople in 860, compelling the Byzantine emperor to rush back from a campaign against the Saracens. Despite causing panic, the Rus retreated in the face of the returning Greek forces. This raid marked a significant point in Byzantine-Rus relations, intertwining warfare with diplomacy as both sides weighed the benefits of conflict versus potential religious conversion and alliance.
For two centuries following this raid, Byzantine and Rus relations alternated between conflict and cooperation. A series of wars and treaties defined this period, with Byzantine diplomacy oscillating between armed resistance and efforts at Christian proselytization. Although some Rus embraced Christianity, the cultural chasm persisted. Trade agreements facilitated interactions, with detailed provisions regulating the conduct and movements of the Rus in Constantinople. Efforts to integrate the Rus into the Byzantine sphere included the recruitment of Varangian mercenaries and the ceremonial hosting of leaders like Princess Olga of Kiev, who was baptized during her visit. Despite momentary successes, genuine religious conversion among the Rus was slow and driven more by strategic concerns than spiritual inclinations.
Olga’s baptism in 957 represented a brief moment of Byzantine success in converting the Rus, but it did not signal a permanent religious turn. Her son, Svyatoslav, rejected Christianity, pursuing a vigorous campaign against both the Khazars and Byzantines. It wasn’t until 988, under St. Vladimir, that the Rus officially adopted Christianity, aligning with the Greek Orthodox Church. This conversion mirrored contemporaneous Christianization movements in Hungary, Poland, and Scandinavia, which began solidifying European religious divisions. The Khazar state, with its Jewish ruling class, found itself increasingly isolated amid these shifts and faced mounting pressure from both the Byzantine and emerging Rus powers.
As Byzantine priorities shifted towards fostering enduring peace with the rising Rus state, old alliances were reconsidered. The Khazar presence, which had once served as a buffer, turned into an economic hindrance by obstructing and taxing critical trade routes. This shift was apparent when Byzantium conceded the Crimean city of Cherson to the Rus without resistance, a consequence of their evolving strategic calculations. While this decision aimed to secure lasting peace with the Rus, it ultimately undermined a long-standing alliance with the Khazars, marking a significant geopolitical realignment that had far-reaching consequences for the region.